Most scholars date Luke–Acts to 80–90 CE, though some push it even later (up to 110 CE) during the reign of Domitian. Possibly written in Antioch (Syria) or Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). Some scholars even propose Rome itself. This would explain the connection between Luke and Mark.
The key to understanding how Luke reworks Mark and positions his narrative within the post-Temple, Roman imperial world. Luke doesn’t just “echo” Mark—he copies large portions of it (often verbatim in Greek), but modifies the tone, theological emphasis, and political implications. Luke penned a more polished, philosophical, and Roman-friendly gospel.
Mark was written in Rome ~70 CE, in the shadow of Jewish national trauma – the destruction of Herod’s Temple. Luke came later (~80–110 CE), from a more Hellenized community, trying to reframe the Jesus movement for a broader, Greco-Roman audience. If Luke wrote from Rome, he had strong interests to appeal to imperial authorities, defending the Jesus movement as peaceful and legal. This would explain why Luke’s Paul is so law-abiding and repeatedly cleared by Roman officials (Acts 23–26).
The Luke Book of Acts Acts transforms Paul into a Socratic figure—well-educated, cosmopolitan, always respectful of authority. Instead of speaking of a national or earthly restoration, Luke pushes toward a universal, inward, and eschatological “Kingdom of God.” The connection between Luke and Mark isn’t just literary—it’s historical and strategic. Luke takes Mark’s Jewish-rooted messianic message and translates it into the language, worldview, and legal norms of the Greco-Roman world.
The theological alliance between Luke and Paul is deep, deliberate, and ideological—and it’s one of the most important pillars of what later becomes Gentile Christianity. Luke–Acts is a two-part theological biography: Part 1: The Gospel of Luke (Jesus’ life); Part 2: Acts of the Apostles (mostly Paul’s mission). Luke’s gospel sets the theological foundation—Jesus as universal savior, son of the Father – the Universal Roman empire like God, and Jerusalem’s ruin, His rejection of Israel—then Acts hands the baton to Paul, who brings this message to the “universal” Gentile world.
Luke and Paul both emphasize Gentiles as co-heirs of salvation (e.g., Acts 10:34–35, Gal 3:28). Both downplay or spiritualize Torah observance, Shabbat, and circumcision. Both replace the national remembrance Torah obligation to remember the oaths sworn by which the Avot cut a oath alliance with HaShem, to create the ‘Chosen Cohen people’. Replaced by the watered down noun: “covenant” which ignores the 1st Sinai commandment which commands to do mitzvot לשמה, with faith-based Jesus as the son of God inclusion (Acts 15 = Jerusalem Council).
As the early church expanded, many Gentiles began to convert to Christianity. This raised questions about whether they needed to follow Jewish laws, particularly circumcision and dietary restrictions, to be considered true followers of Christ. Luke’s gospel sets the theological foundation—Jesus as universal savior, and Jerusalem’s rejection of him—then Acts hands the baton to Paul, who brings this message to the Gentile world. Acts doesn’t end with Peter or James. It ends with Paul in Rome. That’s not just a storytelling decision. It’s a theological climax—Rome becomes the new center of the movement. While the oath brit God of the Avot transformed unto the God of all Humanity.
The inclusion council convened in Jerusalem, bringing together key leaders of the early church, including the Apostle Peter, Paul, Barnabas, and others. The purpose was to discuss the requirements for Gentile believers. Some Jewish Christians argued that Gentiles must be circumcised and follow the Mosaic Law to be saved. This was a significant point of contention. Peter spoke about his experience with Cornelius, a Gentile, emphasizing that God had accepted Gentiles without requiring them to follow Jewish laws. He argued that salvation comes through the grace of Jesus Christ, not adherence to the law.
The council ultimately decided that Gentiles did not need to be circumcised or follow the entire Mosaic Law. Instead, they were to abstain from certain practices (such as food sacrificed to idols, consuming blood, and sexual immorality) to maintain fellowship with Jewish believers. However the clause of sexual immorality failed to address the key Torah mitzva of tohorat Ha’Biet. A letter was drafted to communicate this decision to the Gentile believers, emphasizing that salvation is through the grace of Jesus and not through the law. The Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 was a crucial moment in the early church that affirmed the inclusion of Gentiles into the Christian faith, emphasizing salvation through grace rather than law, and fostering unity among believers from different backgrounds.
The shift away from Torah-based Judaism to a universal spiritual movement included Pharisees, & Sadducees, depicted as hard-hearted, blind, or violent. Employed to justify the shift away from Torah-based Judaism to a universal spiritual movement. Acts portrays the Jewish leadership as repeatedly resisting the Spirit, while Gentiles accept it joyfully (e.g., Acts 13:46–47). This lays the foundation for super-sessionism—the idea that the Church replaces Israel.
In Acts, Luke repeatedly stages Paul’s trials to vindicate him as innocent under Roman law. Felix, Festus, and Agrippa all find no fault in him. Roman centurions save Paul multiple times. Paul appeals to Caesar—not as an enemy of Rome, but as a citizen asserting his rights. This paints Paul as a Roman-friendly philosopher, not a Jewish rebel or sectarian agitator. It’s a massive PR move: Luke is saying, “This movement is legal, rational, and beneficial to the Empire.”
Rome becomes the New Zion, and Paul, the new Moses—one who writes epistles, not mitzvot; who carries no tablets, only grace. The word “covenant” in the Xtian imagination an abstract, theological, and symbolic; on par with the noun substitution of peace for the Hebrew verb shalom which stands upon the foundation of trust. The Torah the term brit a verb not a covenant noun; oath-bound, and sealed in korbanot “living-blood”. A butcher removes the liver after the animal has died. The Cohen gathers the blood for the korban pumped from a beating heart. Hence the distinction: “living-blood”.
Sinai brit: blood sprinkled on the people and altar (Exodus 24:8), a continuation of the (Genesis 15) brit cut between the pieces which created the chosen Cohen people from nothing. The children of Avraham lived only in the world to come at the time of the oath brit which created them, cut between the pieces. All korbanot stand upon and require conscious remembrance of the oaths sworn by the Avot. Hence the first blessing of the Shemone Esrei opens with אלהי אברהם אלהי יצחק ואלהי יעקב. All latter blessings thereafter stand as oath sworn “blessings” based upon their סמוך/adjacent relationship with this, the first blessing. When the Cohen placed their hands סמוך upon the head of the korban, this essentially entailed the k’vanna of remembering the oaths sworn by the Avot by which HaShem created the chosen Cohen people from nothing or תמיד מעשה בראשית. Avram and Sarah at the time of the original brit very old and infertile!
The Luke Paul alliance of revisionist history unhooks and replaces the oath brit with covenant, which in its own turn their new covenant disconnects itself from Torah commandments, and repackages this new covenant as a voluntary membership of conscience—a radical redefinition of what it means to be “chosen.”
The Council of Acts 15 negates, abandons and drops: brit milah, tohorat ha’biet, Shabbat sanctity, moedim (festivals), korbanot, yibbum, taharah, shemitah, or tzedakah, specifics of the תרי”ג mitzvot. This far surpasses the innovations introduced by the new king of Israel, Yeroboam, the first king of Israel, who likewise established his own unique religion of avoda zarah condemned by all the prophets of the NaCH. Yet Jesus fulfilled the prophets. A declaration that can have meaning only tongue in cheek.
Paul’s trials expose PR theater. Paul never guilty of insurrection, Roman centurions, not fellow Jews saved him. Roman governors repeatedly exonerate him. This narrative not only expunges the Avot oaths sworn to cut a Torah brit alliance, rather this narrative highlights the legality of the gospels and Rome’s benevolence. Luke uses Paul’s Roman citizenship as a symbol: not of rebellion, but of respectable conversion. Christianity becomes the empire’s reformed conscience, not its opposition.
The replacement theology of the Luke/Acts dance: it imposes a substitute theology which prioritizes Spirit over Temple; Jesus or Kohanim; Grace over the Written Torah, the Oral Torah revelation at Horev totally ignored. Faith over covenant, the latter a watered down noun rhetoric version of the Avot oath sworn verb-brit alliance. Hence the linkage of a verb to a physical action of sacrifices. This oath-verb, creates continually the Chosen Cohen people from nothing. (Three years after the Shoah, the systematic obliteration of 75% of all European Jewry, Israel as a Jewish nation state rose literally from the dead mass-graves of Europe). Rome replaced Zion, akin to Reform declaring Berlin as their ‘New Jerusalem’.
Rome is not just geography—it’s theology. Luke ends his two-volume work not in Jerusalem, but in Rome—signaling that the center of God’s plan has shifted. Paul becomes a Mosaic figure, but not one who writes law—instead, he dismantles it. His tablets are epistles, not mitzvot. His medium is grace, not korban.
Paul’s “new covenant” redefines milah, korban, moed, taharah, yibbum, shemitah, etc. unto a matter of conscience. This substitute theology, Hellenistic virtue ethics wrapped in Hebrew vocabulary … a wolf in the clothing of sheep. The new testament totally ignores the Oral Torah distinctions made between two Arch-type Goyim living in Judea: the stranger/refugee vs the Goy who accepts the 7 mitzvot Bnai Noach which permits these non Jews judicial rights to sue an Israel in an Israeli court of law for damages inflicted. Clearly the 7 mitzvot Bnai Noach only applied to Goyim temporary residents who currently resided within the borders of Judea.
Once these Bnai Noach people returned to their own countries, they had absolutely no legal obligation to keep the 7 mitzvot Bnai Noach. The jurisdiction of the Sanhedrin common law courts stops at the borders of Judea. The idea of the oath Promised land, so to speak restricts HaShem to rule and judge only the chosen Cohen people who rule this land with judicial righteous justice. This Oral Torah mitzva bnai Noach totally alien to the framers of the New Testament.
The Luke Paul Books change the Torah oath brit God unto a “New Universal God” for all mankind. This perversion served as the model for Muhammad’s strict Monotheism theology. Despite the plain fact that the theology of Monotheism violates the 2nd Sinai Commandment – not to worship other Gods. If but only one God lives then the 2nd Commandment totally in vain.
The daily Jewish religious system—korbanot, birkat Avot, semikha, tohorat haBayit—all anchored in oath remembrance verbs. The smikhah gesture, not just a transfer of sin; rather it’s kavana, a national and generational memory of the oath-brit verb. The first blessing of the Amidah, not simply a ritual decorative—it functions as the anchor of all tefillah verbs separated from prayer nouns, because its active oath remembrance throughout the generations of Israel as the chosen Cohen people.
Acts 15 isn’t just innovation—it’s a schism. Like Yeroboam, it sets up an alternative system with new rules and holidays. What Yeroboam did to the kingdom, Luke-Paul do to Torah. To further clarify the substitution theology introduced: Exodus 24:8: Blood of the brit; Leviticus 17: The blood makes atonement by the life (nefesh) within it; Hebrews 9:22–28: Christ enters not with animal blood, but with his own! A perversion that distorts the oath sworn at the Akadah by Yitzak: “If I am the chosen Cohen seed of my father, save me from this Shoah that my future born Cohen seed might live”. Remember HaShem the oath you swore to my father, and save my future born children from the Shoah. Do this and I shall command my children to do and obey Torah mitzvot.”